Marxism: Definition
Marxism encompasses the theories and practices of socialism and communism as articulated by Karl Heinrich Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1821-1895). Marx and Engels focused primarily on human societies, their historical development, and class struggles leading to revolutions. Their main concern was socio-economic change, particularly the dynamics of capitalist society and how class struggles within this system could pave the way for a better society.
Karl Marx: A Brief Biography
Karl Heinrich Marx was a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, political theorist, and socialist revolutionary born in 1818. Marx studied law and philosophy at university. Due to his political writings, he became stateless and spent much of his life in exile in London, where he collaborated with Friedrich Engels. Marx’s most notable works include the 1848 pamphlet The Communist Manifesto and the three-volume Das Kapital (1867-1883). Inspired by the German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Marx was a leading figure in the development of Marxist theory.
Friedrich Engels: A Brief Biography
Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) was a German philosopher, communist, sociologist, and businessman. Together with Marx, he developed Marxist theory. In 1845, Engels published The Condition of the Working Class in England, based on his observations and research in English cities. He co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Marx in 1848 and supported Marx financially, enabling him to research and write Das Kapital. After Marx’s death, Engels edited the second and third volumes of Das Kapital.
Marxism: Origin of the Term
Marxism was first publicly articulated in The Communist Manifesto by Marx and Engels in 1848, outlining the theory of class struggle and revolution. Marxian economics, particularly Marx’s critique of capitalism, is detailed in Das Kapital (1867). The term “Marxism” gained popularity through Karl Kautsky, an orthodox Marxist, during debates between orthodox and revisionist Marxist followers. Eduard Bernstein, Kautsky’s revisionist rival, also used the term.
Understanding Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic and social system where the means of production are mostly privately owned and operated for profit. Distribution and exchange occur primarily within a market economy. It involves individuals’ and corporations’ rights to trade goods, services, labor, and land, using money as a medium.
Understanding Socialism
Socialism is a socio-economic system where property and wealth distribution are controlled by workers, either directly through collectives like workers’ councils or indirectly by the state on behalf of the people. Egalitarianism, or equality, is a fundamental goal of socialism.
Understanding Communism
Inspired by socialism, communism envisions a free society with no class divisions or state governance, where humanity is free from oppression and scarcity. In a communist society, people contribute according to their abilities and receive according to their needs, aiming for the full realization of human freedom.
Marx and Engels’s Vision of Society
Marx and Engels identified six stages in societal development:
- Primitive Communism: Cooperative tribal societies.
- Slave Society: Emergence of city-states and aristocracy.
- Feudalism: Aristocracy rules, and merchants evolve into capitalists.
- Capitalism: Capitalists rule and create a working class.
- Socialism (Dictatorship of the Proletariat): Workers gain class consciousness, overthrow capitalists, and take control of the state.
- Communism: A classless and stateless society emerges.
Key Ideas of Marxism
- Historical Materialism: The history of “civilized” societies is seen as a war of classes, with conflicts between those who control production (bourgeoisie) and those who produce goods or services (proletariat).
- Class Division: Capitalist society is divided into the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (labor class).
- Exploitation and Alienation: Capitalists exploit workers by expropriating surplus value generated by labor, leading to worker alienation and resentment.
- Economic Power and Control: Those with economic power control societal institutions (superstructure) based on the mode of production (base).
- Ideological Control: Ruling classes use their control over social institutions to maintain ideological dominance.
- False Class Consciousness: The proletariat is deluded into accepting their conditions as inevitable, a state known as false consciousness.
- Commodity Fetishism: Capitalism promotes obsession with material objects and money, contributing to false consciousness.
- Revolution and Communism: Political action is necessary to awaken the proletariat to revolutionary class consciousness, leading to a more equal, free, and happy communist society.
Types of Marxism
Marxism can be categorized into eleven major groups:
- Classical Marxism: The original theory by Marx and Engels.
- Marxism-Leninism: A communist ideology associated with Joseph Stalin, loosely based on Marxist theory.
- Western Marxism: Diverse Marxist theories from Western and Central Europe, including thinkers like György Lukács and Karl Korsch.
- Libertarian Marxism: Emphasizes working-class self-determination without a revolutionary party or state.
- Structural Marxism: Influenced by Louis Althusser’s structural analysis of society and economy.
- Neo-Marxism: Incorporates elements of modern psychology and sociology, with contributions from the Frankfurt School.
- Cultural Marxism: Analyzes the role of cultural institutions, with added emphasis on race and gender.
- Analytical Marxism: Focuses on clear and rigorous thinking about Marxist questions.
- Post-Marxism: Builds on classical Marxism but extends beyond its traditional limits.
- Marxist Humanism: Emphasizes Marx’s early writings on alienation.
- Marxist Feminism: Seeks to dismantle capitalism to liberate women, viewing private property as the root of women’s oppression.