Middle English Period / Anglo – Norman Period (1066 – 1550): Before Chaucer (1066 – 1350)

Introduction

The Middle English period, spanning from 1066 to 1550, is a significant era in the development of English literature. This period is broadly divided into three phases: Before Chaucer (1066–1350), the Age of Chaucer (1350–1400), and the Age of Revival (1400–1550). The Middle English period before Chaucer (1066–1350) represents a transformative phase in English literary history, marked by significant cultural and linguistic changes that set the stage for the flourishing of English literature. This era is defined by the aftermath of the Norman Conquest, which brought profound influences from Norman French culture and language. During this time, English literature saw the development of various genres and forms, including chronicles, religious and didactic poetry, metrical romances, secular poetry, and alliterative poems. Additionally, prose and drama also began to take shape, laying the groundwork for future literary achievements. This analysis delves into the intricate tapestry of literature before Chaucer, examining its key works, authors, and thematic concerns within the broader socio-political context.

Before Chaucer (1066–1350)

The Background

The Middle English period begins with the Norman Conquest in 1066, when William, Duke of Normandy, defeated Harold at the Battle of Hastings. This event significantly impacted English culture, politics, and language, marking the beginning of the Anglo-Norman period. The Norman Conquest shifted England away from Scandinavian influence and re-integrated it into the broader sphere of Christian Europe. The Normans, who had been Christians for generations, reinforced Christianity in England. This period saw the development of allegory as a prominent feature of Medieval English literature. One of the critical outcomes of the Norman Conquest was the evolution of the English language, influenced by Norman French.

The Literature

Literature before Chaucer is categorized into three main groups: poetry, prose, and drama. Poetry is further divided into five subgroups: The Chronicles, Religious and Didactic Poetry, Metrical Romance, Secular Poetry, and Alliterative Poems.

Poetry

The Chronicles

1. Layamon’s Brut: Layamon’s Brut, also known as Lazamon’s Brut or The Chronicle of Britain, is one of the most significant chronicles of this period. Written by Layamon between 1190 and 1215, the Brut is based on Wace’s Roman de Brut, which itself is a translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae. This chronicle comprises 16,000 lines written in a loose alliterative style and narrates the legendary history of Britain, named after its mythical founder, Brutus of Troy. Layamon’s work is notable for its attempt to create a sense of national identity and continuity, blending myth with history.
2. Robert of Gloucester’s Chronicle: This chronicle, attributed to Robert of Gloucester, is influenced by Geoffrey of Monmouth and William of Malmesbury. It provides a historical account that intertwines legendary and factual elements, contributing to the emerging narrative of English national history.

Religious and Didactic Poetry

1. The Ormulum: Composed by Orm (or Ormin) around 1200, The Ormulum is a monumental work of 19,000 lines written in a distinctive metre based on the Latin septenarious, with fifteen syllables per line. The name “Orm” derives from Old Norse, meaning worm, serpent, or dragon. This work is a collection of homilies intended for use in church services, reflecting the period’s didactic and religious concerns.
2. Handlyng Synne: Written by Robert Manning of Brunne in 1303, Handlyng Synne is based on William of Wadington’s Manuel des Pechies. This poem serves as a moral guide, addressing themes of sin and repentance, and is notable for its straightforward, didactic style.
3. The Pricke of Conscience: Authored by Richard Rolle of Hampole, The Pricke of Conscience is a religious poem that delves into themes of morality and spiritual introspection. Other notable works in this category include Cursor Mundi, Poema Morale, and Sinners Beware, each contributing to the era’s rich tradition of didactic literature.

Metrical Romances

The metrical romances of this period are primarily written in octosyllabic couplets and various tail-rhyme stanzas. They can be classified into four main groups:

1. The Matter of Britain: This category includes the Arthurian legends, which were immensely popular. Notable works include Sir Gawayne and The Grene Knyght, Tristrem, Arthur and Merlin, and Ywain and Gawain. Thomas Malory’s Morte d’Arthure, although written later, also draws from this tradition. These romances explore themes of chivalry, heroism, and courtly love, often blending myth with historical elements.
2. The Matter of Rome: These romances focus on classical legends and themes, such as the exploits of Alexander the Great and the Siege of Troy. Works like King Alisaunder and The Destruction of Troy exemplify this genre. Miscellaneous romances such as Amis and Amiloun, William of Palerne, and Floris and Blauchefleur also fall into this category, each offering unique narrative styles and themes.
3. The Matter of France: This group includes tales of Charlemagne and his knights, often centered around the struggle against the advancing Saracens. Notable works include Coilzear and Sir Ferumbras.
4. The Matter of England: Romances dealing with English history and its heroes are numerous. Works like King Horn, Havelock the Dane, Guy of Warwick, and Bevis of Hampton are among the best-known. These romances often draw on contemporary history, as seen in Richard Coeur de Lion, providing a blend of historical and legendary elements.

Secular Poetry

1. The Owl and the Nightingale: Attributed to Nicholas of Guildford, this poem is a debate between a grave owl and a joyous nightingale. Written in short rhyming couplets, it is a dream-allegory that reflects the period’s fascination with allegorical and didactic forms.

Alliterative Poems

1. Pearl: A dream-allegory exploring themes of loss and spiritual consolation.
2. Patience: A didactic poem emphasizing the virtue of patience.
3. Purity: Another didactic work focusing on themes of purity and moral integrity.
4. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: A chivalric romance written in the West Midland dialect, this poem is known for its intricate narrative and rich use of symbolism. These poems are believed to have been written by the same author, often referred to as the “Pearl Poet” or “Gawain Poet,” and survive in a single manuscript, Cotton Nero A.x.

Prose

1. Ancrene Riwle (Ancrene Wisse or Guide for Anchoresses): Written in the 12th century for three noble ladies, this prose work consists of eight parts covering topics from divine service to domestic matters. The guide is divided into the “Outer Rule” (relating to the anchoresses’ exterior life) and the “Inner Rule” (relating to their interior life), providing a comprehensive guide to spiritual and practical living.
2. The Ayenbite of Inwyt: Composed by Dan Michel of Northgate in 1340 in the Kentish dialect, this work of moral instruction reflects the period’s focus on didactic literature and the use of regional dialects in literary production.

Drama

The drama of the pre-Chaucerian period can be classified into three groups: Mystery and Miracle Plays, Morality Plays, and Interludes.

Mystery and Miracle Plays

These plays are biblical dramas that depict various stories from the Bible. There are four complete or nearly complete extant English biblical collections of plays, often referred to as cycles:

1. Chester Cycle: Comprising 24 plays, this cycle narrates biblical stories from Creation to the Last Judgment.
2. York Cycle (Corpus Christi Plays): A collection of 48 plays, these dramatizations also cover a wide range of biblical narratives.
3. Wakefield Cycle (Towneley Mystery Plays): Consisting of 32 plays, six of which overlap with the York Cycle.
4. Coventry Cycle (Ludus Coventriae): Encompassing 42 plays, this cycle includes a diverse range of biblical stories.

These plays were performed during religious festivals and served both educational and entertainment purposes, reinforcing Christian doctrine and moral values.

Morality Plays

Morality plays are allegorical dramas that personify moral attributes and vices to illustrate the battle between good and evil within the human soul. Some of the most well-known morality plays from this period include:

1. The Castle of Perseverance: An allegory of human life, representing the soul’s journey from birth to death.
2. Mankind: A play that explores the temptations and moral struggles of its protagonist.
3. Wisdom: Another morality play focusing on the virtues of wisdom and the pitfalls of folly.
4. Everyman (The Summoning of Everyman): Perhaps the most famous of the morality plays, Everyman is an allegorical accounting of a man’s life and his search for companions to accompany him to his final reckoning. This play is celebrated for its exploration of themes like mortality, repentance, and salvation.

Interludes

Interludes were short performances often presented at court or in the homes of the nobility. These were typically performed by professional minstrels or amateurs during intervals between other forms of entertainment, such as banquets or plays. Notable interludes include:

1. The Four P’s: Written by Sir John Heywood around 1544, this interlude is a humorous debate among a Palmer, a Pardoner, a Pedlar, and a Pothicary.
2. The Play of the Weather: Another interlude by John Heywood, it showcases the versatility of this form in addressing contemporary issues with humour and satire.

Conclusion

The period before Chaucer (1066–1350) in Middle English literature is characterized by a rich and diverse array of genres and forms, each reflecting the complex cultural and linguistic landscape of post-Norman Conquest England. From the historical chronicles that sought to establish a sense of national identity, to the religious and didactic poetry that guided moral and spiritual life, to the vibrant metrical romances that celebrated chivalric ideals, this era laid the foundation for the future development of English literature. The emergence of prose and drama during this time also played a crucial role in shaping literary traditions. The literature of this period not only entertained but also educated, providing moral and spiritual guidance to its audiences. The themes of chivalry, morality, and spirituality prevalent in the works of this era reflect the deeply ingrained cultural values of medieval society. As such, the pre-Chaucerian Middle English period stands as a testament to the dynamic and evolving nature of English literary history, setting the stage for the remarkable achievements that would follow in the Age of Chaucer and beyond.