The Age of Chaucer (1340 / 1350 – 1400 / 1450)

Historical and Cultural Context

The Age of Chaucer, spanning from 1340 to 1400 or 1450, was a period of significant historical, social, and cultural transformation in England. During this time, England was ruled by three monarchs: Edward III (1327–1377), Richard II (1377–1399), and Henry IV (1399–1413). This era was marked by the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453), a prolonged conflict between England and France that deeply influenced the national psyche and economy. Additionally, the Black Death (1348–1349) decimated approximately one-third of England’s population, leading to profound demographic shifts. The labour shortage resulting from this epidemic spurred changes in the relationship between labourers and landlords, culminating in the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381.

Characteristics of the Age

The Age of Chaucer is characterized by several distinctive features:

1. Transition and Transformation: This period was a time of significant change and upheaval, marked by wars, plagues, and social revolts. These events influenced the themes and concerns of contemporary literature, reflecting societal shifts and the human condition.
2. Rise of the English Language: There was a notable shift towards the use of English in literature, moving away from Latin and French. This standardization helped shape modern English and made literature more accessible to the broader populace.
3. Emergence of Personal Voice in Literature: Writers began to explore individual expression and personal viewpoints, as seen in Chaucer’s detailed characterizations in The Canterbury Tales.
4. Allegory and Symbolism: Much of the literature from this period is rich in allegory and symbolism, reflecting deeper moral, religious, and philosophical meanings. Works like Piers Plowman and The House of Fame exemplify this trend.
5. Courtly Love and Chivalry: Themes of courtly love and chivalric ideals were prevalent, influenced by earlier medieval traditions. These themes are evident in Chaucer’s Troilus and Criseyde and Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur.
6. Dream Visions: The dream vision genre, where the narrative is presented as a dream experienced by the narrator, was popular. This form allowed authors to explore abstract ideas and social commentary within a fantastical framework.

The Literature

The Age of Chaucer saw the beginnings of Scottish literature and the standardization of the English language. Literature from this period is generally categorized into poetry and prose, with Geoffrey Chaucer, William Langland, John Gower, and John Barbour being the prominent poets, while prose was represented by figures like Sir John Mandeville, John Wycliffe, and Sir Thomas Malory.

Poetry & Poets

Geoffrey Chaucer

Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1340 – c. 1400) is perhaps the most renowned figure of this era, often referred to as the Father of English literature. His literary works are traditionally divided into three stages: the French Period, the Italian Period, and the English Period.

i) French Period

During the French Period, Chaucer’s works were heavily influenced by French authors. Significant works from this time include:

• The Book of the Duchesse (1369): Chaucer’s first major work, an elegy and eulogy written for Blanche, the wife of John of Gaunt. This dream allegory is composed in octosyllabic couplets.
• The Compleynt unto Pite: An allegorical poem.
• The Romaunt of the Rose: The longest poem of this period, an 8,000-line dream allegory based on the French work Le Roman de la Rose by Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meung. Chaucer is believed to have written the first 1,700 lines.
• The Compleynt of Mars: An allegorical and astronomical poem.
• An A.B.C.: Originally titled La priere de Nostre Dame, this allegorical poem is a prayer to the Virgin Mary.

ii) Italian Period

Chaucer’s Italian Period reflects the influence of Italian literature and authors. Key works include:

• The Parlement of Foules (Parlement of Briddes / Assemble of Foules): A 700-line dream allegory in rhyme royal stanza, considered one of the earliest references to Valentine’s Day.
• Anelida and Arcite: A 357-line poem inspired by Boccaccio’s Teseida and Statius’s Thebaid.
• Troilus and Criseyde: Based on Boccaccio’s Il Filostrato, this tragic love story is set during the Siege of Troy and is part of the Matter of Rome cycle.
• The House of Fame: A 2,005-line dream vision composed in octosyllabic couplets.
• The Legend of Good Women: A dream allegory written in decasyllabic couplets, it features a prologue and stories of 19 women, though Chaucer completed only nine .

iii) English Period

Chaucer’s English Period produced his most famous work, The Canterbury Tales, a collection of 24 stories running over 17,000 lines. Although Chaucer completed only 20 tales, this work remains a cornerstone of English literature. The tales are framed by a pilgrimage to the tomb of Thomas Becket at Canterbury, with two tales in prose (the Tale of Melibeus and the Parson’s Tale). Other notable works from this period include:

• The Lak of Steadfastness: A short poem.
• Compleynte of Chaucer to his Empty Purse: A serio-comic poem.
• The Flower and the Leaf: A dream allegory.
• The Court of Love: Another dream allegory .

William Langland

William Langland (1332–1400), another significant poet of this period, is best known for Piers the Plowman (also known as The Vision of William concerning Piers the Plowman). This allegorical narrative, structured as a dream vision, critiques contemporary society and religious practices. It exists in three versions (A, B, and C texts), with only the A text definitively attributed to Langland. The poem’s central theme revolves around the Christian ethos of “Do-well, Do-better, and Do-best,” and it is distinguished by its use of alliteration.

John Gower

John Gower (1330–1408), a contemporary and friend of Chaucer, made substantial contributions to medieval literature. Gower’s most notable works include:

• Speculum Meditantis: A collection of love poems written in French.
• Vox Clamantis: A Latin poem.
• Confessio Amantis (The Lover’s Confession): An allegorical English poem composed of octosyllabic couplets. It explores the Seven Deadly Sins and draws inspiration from Boethius’s Consolation of Philosophy and Boccaccio’s Decameron, and contains influences from Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales.

John Barbour

John Barbour (1316–1395) is celebrated as the first Scottish poet. His seminal work, The Brus, chronicles the struggles and victories of the Scottish people under the leadership of Robert the Bruce, culminating in the Battle of Bannockburn.

Prose Literature

Prose during the Age of Chaucer also flourished, with notable contributions from:

• Sir John Mandeville: Author of The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, a widely read travel memoir that blends fact and fiction.
• John Wycliffe: A theologian and early reformer, Wycliffe is best known for his translation of the Bible into English, which laid the groundwork for subsequent English translations.
• Sir Thomas Malory: Known for Le Morte d’Arthur, a compilation of Arthurian legends that has profoundly influenced English literature.

Conclusion

The Age of Chaucer was a vibrant and transformative period in English literary history. It was marked by significant socio-political changes, which were reflected in the literature of the time. Geoffrey Chaucer emerged as a pioneering figure whose works laid the foundation for English literature. His contemporaries, including William Langland, John Gower, and John Barbour, also made substantial contributions that enriched the literary landscape. The period’s prose writers, with their ground-breaking works, further cemented this era as a cornerstone of English literary heritage.